All were knighted. Others refused recruitment into colonial armies or labor forces.Jun 20 2017. [59], Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.[60]. WORKING PAPER: Passive and Active Resistance to Openness - 4 can also resist fulfilling the spirit of FOIAs in a more passive or subtle manner. Because of the hazards of climate and tropical diseases for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta, and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. [8] British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 18601890". [73], Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of H1N1 influenza A, the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria. In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators. Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. The Nigerian Resistance. Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, led his army to accomplish this unique feat in March 1896, defeating General Oreste Baratieri's Italian . The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 17761850. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. Then they resisted the policy as much as possible. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at Olobiri in the Niger Delta. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. [23] Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.[21][24]. Areas with lucrative crops such as cacao and peanuts (groundnuts) profited, while many people in different parts of the country had to migrate to work elsewhere as tenant farmers or use their newly acquired education and skills to work in cities as wage earners, traders, and artisans. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra. The Niger Delta and Calabar, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the blockade of Africa. Samori Ture 7. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the Igbo; the CMS worked among the Yoruba. As a result, the trading post at the Niger River is created and the British economic rule is maintained over the colonies, exploiting Nigerians (Graham, 2009). The Colonial Era (1882-1960) British colonialism began under the pretense of policing the slave trade. [37] Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties. The Native Administration was headed by the traditional rulersmostly emirs in the north and often obas in the southand their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Locally this involved the immediate invasion of the German-held Kamerun (Cameroon) by Nigerian forces, followed by a costly campaign that lasted until 1916. As a philosophical movement and critical . The Action Group was largely the creation of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, General Secretary of Egbe Omo Oduduwa and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. The yoruba-Igbo rivalry became increasingly important in Nigerian politics. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. As a latecomer in the struggle for colonies, Germany had to settle for four territories, called "protectorates," in . By a British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960. [] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. The risings in the midwest of Nigeria and the Niger delta during the early stages of the war cannot be understood except in the context of falling prices for palm products, and the drop in trade due to the exclusion of the . Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. [74] But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior. In the early stages of British rule, it is desirable to retain the native authority and to work through and by the native emirs. [73] The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Although colonial rule appeared secure in the first two decades of the 20th century, the British struggled to keep control of their Nigerian colony and continued to do so until Nigeria became independent in 1960. David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 17001891"; in Ptr-Grenouilleau. Nigeria (/ n a d r i / ny-JEER-ee-), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa.It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean.It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi), and with a population of over 225 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the world's . Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories. The British, like other newcomers to the slave trade, found . Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. Though the Europeans possess many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the East Indies, they have not yet established in either of those countries such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of America. Decolonization Resource Collection (National History Center) Less Scrambling, more Reflecting: Teaching about colonialism in Africa from the perspective of resistance by Bram Hubbel, February 9, 2019. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to Muslim Arab slave traders. A "house" included the extended family of the trader, including retainers and slaves. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroada group that included Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and Aminu Kanowas allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. Revolts in against water rates and the alienation of indigenous land in 1908 and 1911 served to unite native African elites and working class residents. [54] Olivier was a member of the Fabian Society and a friend of George Bernard Shaw. Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. Alan Lennox-Boyd, M.P., the British Secretary of State for the Colonies. vestigation of the forms of primary resistance by Africans to the impo-sition of colonial rule in the classic period of European imperialism, say from 1880 to 1914. 1324 Words6 Pages. Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the Jos Plateau. Other Protestant denominations from Great Britain, Canada, and the United States also opened missions and, in the 1860s, Roman Catholic religious orders established missions. opposed early self-rule for colonial Nigeria on the ground of perceived domination by the southerners. [9] Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in London and in Nigeria. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with Ghana and Sierra Leone. [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. Bolivian indigenous activist Ivan Ignacio, one of many indigenous activists at the second People's Summit in Qubec . Chapter 2 argues that following the transformation of the Northern Nigerian region by the Sokoto Jihad in the nineteenth century, Islamic structures provided the crucial structural and ideological frameworks on which the British colonial administrative system was rationalized in the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in the first half of the twentieth century. The trade subsequently continued under the Portuguese Empire. tax. To establish settled government in the newly won districts; To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. [57], From 1895 to 1900, a railway was constructed running from Lagos to Ibadan; it opened in March 1901. Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. It was a resistance movement whereby women in the Eastern Provinces of the British colony of Nigeria intended to reverse colonial policies that intruded on their political, economic, and social participation in local communities. Divide and rule policy: This was mainly applied in areas where African societies or population had poor relations as a result of differences between their leaders or divisions created by Christian religious sects to easily defeat Africans in case of impending resistance against colonial rule. Consequently, in 1849, John Beecroft was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from Dahomey to Cameroon. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from Dahomey and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the emirate of Ilorin, the British Governorassisted by the CMSsucceeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. European slave trading from West Africa began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. By 1919 the National Council of British West Africa, an organization consisting of elites across West Africa, was demanding that half the members of the Legislative Council be Africans; they also wanted a university in West Africa and more senior positions for Africans in the colonial civil service. In an era of globalization, leaders of "recognized" nations often discuss the development of indigenous resources without inviting aboriginal leaders to the table. [40] By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos. Total revenues of central and regional governments nearly doubled in relation to the gross domestic product during the decade. [67], The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. Published August 7, 2020. [16] Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the Oba of Benin, whose office was closely identified with Edo religion, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. In 1886, Taubman secured a royal charter and his company became the Royal Niger Company. Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. The arrival of the British. Main aim. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. . By 18261850, the British Royal Navy was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports. The Governor-General, in turn, was responsible for appointing the prime minister and for choosing a candidate from among contending leaders when there was no parliamentary majority. Decolonization - Jan C. Jansen 2019-06-11 The end of colonial rule in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean was one of the most A more representative system did not appear until 1946, when each geographic group of provinces had its own House of Assembly, with a majority of nonofficial (though not yet all elected) members; there were also a House of Chiefs and, in Lagos, a central Legislative Council. In the ensuing decade, resistance to colonial rule continued, but Africans altered their tactics and women featured prominently in anticolonial resistance when cultural changes tended to disadvantage women. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul John Beecroft to encourage the overthrow of the regime. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. Asante Resistance (Ghana) 6. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. refusing to pay. However, it is thought that the Nigerians themselves were providing the . Each region had a governor, premier, cabinet, legislature, and civil service, with the significantly weaker federal government represented in Lagos by a governor-general, bureaucracy, House of Representatives, and Senate. Early British Imperialism. How did British keep Nigerians from developing organized political resistance. The present attempt is to inquire into the educational policy of colonial Nigeria, the aim, the nature and process of educational development and how it affected women in Nigeria. The most important of these was a near fetish with indirect rule that was supposed to facilitate a cheap and effective ruling strategy. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. [79][80], Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF). In the south the British occasionally created a political hierarchy where there had been none before; in most cases they ruled through those who were most malleable, whether these people had held traditional positions of authority or not. In the immediate post-World War II period, Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. It occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it, often while . Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. Following Lugards success in the north, he set out the principles of the administrative system subsequently institutionalized as indirect rule. Essentially, local government was to be left in the hands of the traditional chiefs, subject to the guidance of European officers. After the British government assumed direct control of the Royal Niger Companys territories, the northern areas were renamed the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, and the land in the Niger delta and along the lower reaches of the river was added to the Niger Coast Protectorate, which was renamed the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. [17] In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. . After 1900, Europe began to introduce changes to colonial rule in an effort to increase revenues from the colonies. In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the Nigerian Union of Teachers; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by Obafemi Awolowo. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. In this final section of this module, we will look at four phases of African reaction to . This line was extended to Oshogbo, 100 kilometres (62mi) away, in 19051907, and to Zungeru and Minna in 19081911. European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the cowrie, which was already valued locally. Segments of the Yoruba community had their own animosities and new rivalries arose. Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts, and fined 50 if they failed to supply. [59], Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon. The central government, presided over by the governor-general and accountable to the secretary for the colonies in London, was more powerful but distant from the people. The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at Lancaster House in London in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by The Rt. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area in the 1885 Berlin Conference. History of Islam in Nigeria. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. The British Empire, once known as "the empire where the sun never sets," is the most powerful political entity in the history of the world. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from 361,815 to 1,933,235 over the same period. [13], The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. [73], Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October. In her . The principal commodities of legitimate trade were palm oil and palm kernels, which were used in Europe to make soap and as lubricants for machinery before petroleum products were developed for that purpose. ", Tamuno, T. N. (1970). American president Dwight D. Eisenhower was represented at the independence ceremonies by Nelson Rockefeller, the . At the urging of Governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos). [12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. This was used for Britain's main purpose of taking control of the region. Some of them also manned Company stations and served as District Agents.". The Eastern region was dominated by Azikiwe and the Western one by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, a Yoruba lawyer who in 1950 founded the Action Group. [21], Whether British conquest of Nigeria resulted from a benevolent motive to end slavery or more instrumental motives of wealth and power, remains a topic of dispute between African and European historians. This was because; education in Southern Nigeria was already leading to a level of awareness and militancy or resistance to colonial rule. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. By. It was replaced by a new coalition government led by David Lloyd George featuring Conservatives and Lloyd George's supporters in the Liberal Party, while Asquith and the remainder of the Liberals entered opposition.[69]. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race [] never yet satisfied a nation long and [] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition". Traditional authorities were co-opted in the north, where the spread of Western education by Christian missionaries was strongly resisted by Muslim leaders. In 1922 Kamerun was divided under a League of Nations mandate between France and Britain, Britain administering its area within the government of Nigeria; after 1946 the mandated areas were redesignated as a United Nations (UN) trust territory. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from Nyasaland and established British presence in Uganda. Alienated by the anonymity of the urban environment and drawn together by ties to their ethnic homelandsas well as by the need for mutual aidthe new city dwellers formed local clubs that later expanded into federations covering whole regions. Contemporary photograph of the same building, now housing the, Developments in colonial policy under Clifford, Emergence of Southern Nigerian nationalism, Constitutional conferences in the UK (195758), All of this section to this point is from. [18], In 1807, the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Slave Trade Act, prohibiting British subjects from participating in the Atlantic slave trade. Three of these posts were assigned to representatives from each region, and one was reserved for a delegate from the Northern Cameroons. The legal justification for this campaign was a treaty signed in 1886, when the British had interceded as peacemakers to end the Ekiti Parapo war, which imposed free trade requirements and mandated that all parties continue to use British channels for diplomacy. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. Frederick Lugard, who was appointed as High Commissioner of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1900 and served until 1906 in his first term, often has been regarded by the British as their model colonial administrator. 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